“The Frontiers of Imperial Rome” by David Breeze
Review of Breeze, D J (2011) “The Frontiers of Imperial Rome” by Dr Philip Rance
Breeze, D J (2011) “The Frontiers of Imperial Rome”, Pen & Sword Books, Barnsley, Hb, xxi, 242 p., rrp £25, ISBN 9781848844278 reviewed by Dr Philip Rance
Breeze, D J (2011) “The Frontiers of Imperial Rome”
This short monograph by David Breeze complements his extensive and well-regarded contribution to Roman frontier studies. Broader in perspective than his best-known publications on northern Britain, the book addresses fundamental questions: “how did Roman frontiers operate and what was their purpose and role?” (xvii). Here “frontiers” are narrowly conceived as the structures built and used by the Roman army on or close to the boundaries of the Roman empire, accepting that these works did not necessarily constitute the limits of imperial power in its various manifestations. Accordingly, Breeze examines the predominantly archaeological evidence for the location, structural typologies and function of frontier installations as indices of the nature, development and purpose of the Roman limes, viewed as one the empire’s greatest monuments. Imperial politics, “foreign policy”, frontier culture and the many other dimensions of the Roman army’s operations and impact are treated only insofar as they affect or relate to this aspect. The chronological horizons stretch from the beginning of the Principate to the end of the fourth century, arguable for the western empire on the grounds that thereafter the frontiers were simply never the same again; for the east merely the necessity that one has to stop somewhere. Even within these parameters, however, Breeze sets himself no small task, given the geographical dimensions of the limes (4,800 m/7,500 km), the size and complexity of the archaeological record, and the diversity of Roman strategies for maintaining frontier security.
Breeze succinctly poses a central question that has troubled recent scholarship: whether frontiers were primarily intended to protect the empire from invasion by armies or to control the movement of people, both individuals and groups, intent on various forms of “illicit entry” (though in the later Roman period contemporary distinctions between “armies” and “people(s)” and “invasion” and “movement” become less easily distinguishable). The semantic niceties of “frontier” and “boundary” are not explicitly defined, but Breeze’s proposition of different conceptual levels of border – political/administrative, geographical/environmental, ethnic/cultural and military – is neither novel nor difficult to understand. Breeze faults scholarship on Roman frontiers over recent decades, mostly the work of ancient historians, for its lack of archaeological interest and/or knowledge, but also points a finger at archaeologists for their failure to produce compelling interpretative syntheses and insufficient engagement with a non-specialist readership, which has permitted overly pessimistic perceptions of what archaeology can tell us about frontiers and even contributed to “limes denial” (xviii). Breeze hopes this book will go some way to redressing these imbalances in the current bibliography by presenting the archaeological evidence in a way that “will illuminate the wider debate about the nature and purpose of Roman frontiers” (xix).
The book is divided into three parts and twenty chapters. Part I is introductory and contextual. Ch. 1 concisely defines conceptual terminology, contemporary and modern, and identifies factors in frontier development, primarily landscape and climate, which in turn determine the extent of human intervention, availability of construction materials and techniques, and interaction with neighbouring peoples and powers. Ch. 2 briefly surveys the textual and archaeological sources, with informative remarks on the origin and early development of archaeological interest in limites. Ch. 3 gives a selective overview of the evolution of the Roman empire’s boundaries from Augustus to the late fourth century, chiefly from geopolitical perspectives, including shifting attitudes towards imperial expansion and its demarcation (whether sine or cum fine); foreign policy; “natural” frontiers (rivers, seas, mountains, deserts). Ch. 4 selectively reviews the exiguous evidence for Roman authors’ perceptions and knowledge of frontier defences. Ch. 5 glances at treaty stipulations insofar as they relate to frontier security or regulate the movement of people(s). In this context Breeze observes that, “it might be considered that the exact location of the frontier would be marked by stones. None are, however, known’ (33); of potential assistance here might be Amm. Marc. 18.2.15, referring to terminales lapides which “marked the boundaries” (confinia distinguebant) between the territory of the Alemanni and, depending on manuscript variants, the Romans or Burgundians. A longer chapter ch. 6 introduces “the building blocks of frontiers”. A summary of basic military organization, units and career structures is disappointing: the decision to translate or circumlocute most Latin termini technici and regimental titles arguably proves more disorientating than would have their retention, while the attempt to simplify the complexities of the late Roman army results in some imprecision. Characterisation of limitanei as “second-class troops” reflective of the “fossilization of the armies on the frontier” (35, again 194), if not wholly outdated, now seems accurate only of some (western European) frontiers. There follows a succinct but useful explanation of the designs, chronology and functions of forts, fortlets and towers, followed by a glance at the evidence for builders.
Largely descriptive and constituting the core of the book, Part II presents the vast body of archaeological material, replete with numerous maps, site plans and illustrations. Six chapters offer chronological treatment of distinctive types of frontier, categorised principally by topography, climate and/or constructional form. This arrangement leads to juxtapositions of formally or environmentally similar sectors of the limes, which permit more direct comparisons and contrasts than conventional geographical and regional surveys allow. Emphasis lies on discernment of general typologies and patterns rather than detailed exposition of individual sites. Ch. 7 on linear barriers considers the creation and development of the Hadrianic and Antonine Walls and the Upper German-Raetian limes, with briefer comparative remarks on the so-called fossatum Africae and the limes Transalutanus. Here Breeze is very much on home turf. He clearly describes the evolution of the three best-studied frontiers, identifying archaeologically traceable modifications to original plans, and is especially adept at explaining how and why construction, building materials and the “final” form relate (or not) to landscape, environment and any pre-existing structures. Summary analysis of differences and similarities clarifies the possible intentions, functions and capabilities of linear barriers. Ch. 8 considers the utility and qualities of rivers as obstacles, communication routes and boundary markers with respect to the empire’s three major riverine frontiers – Rhine, Danube and (very briefly) Euphrates. Breeze charts the long-term development of the Rhine-Danube axis, focusing on the siting and typology of different military installations and the deployment of units according to topography and shifting strategic priorities. Ch. 9 elucidates some of the peculiarities of desert frontiers, principally in Syria-Arabia and North Africa including Egypt. Breeze is again particularly alert to environmental factors and the potential diversity of functions accorded to military structures and personnel (defence, trade and caravans, transhumance, mineral exploitation). Ch. 10 deals with mountain frontiers, for the most part characterised as control of communication routes, best exemplified by the frontier installations of Dacia and Numidia‒Mauretiania Caesariensis. A subsequent treatment of sea frontiers, principally Britain and the Black Sea, is too cursory to provide more that superficial treatment of complex questions. Ch. 12, barely more than a page, considers the possible impact of forests and marshes in shaping frontiers. Ch. 13, another micro-chapter, entitled “The Deep Frontier: Defence-in-Depth?”, deals almost exclusively with Britain, which Breeze rightly identifies as “a special case” and only perforce “defence-in-depth” on account of the narrow width of the island. Instead of this demonstration of a negative case, a more useful approach to this subject might have been investigation of an actual “in-depth” defensive system, even if geographically and chronologically restricted (e.g. in Gaul under the so-called Gallic Empire), as an illustration of ad hoc innovation and regional particularity (alluded to p. 193).
Part III begins with a resume of the chronological development of Roman frontiers and frontier installations (ch. 14), which sets the scene for interpretative chapters. These are mostly short and deal, inter alia, with military deployment in relation to the type, location and distribution of installations and the local landscape, as well as logistical and strategic considerations, notably lines of penetration in and out of the empire (ch. 15); a comparison of frontiers, emphasising regional and provincial diversity reflective of differing strategic, topographical and environmental factors and broader infrastructural developments (ch. 16); and an all-to-brief and somewhat general discussion of “decision making”, focusing on the responsibilities and independent initiative accorded to provincial governors with regard to frontier installations (ch. 17). Breeze chooses not to participate directly in the Luttwak-inspired and ongoing dispute over Roman ‘grand strategy’, but his conclusions, rightly in my view, acknowledge Roman capabilities in centralised strategic planning. Ch. 18 addresses the question “How did frontiers work?” Following contextual remarks on Roman diplomacy and international power politics, Breeze assesses the operation of frontiers through a tripartite topographic framework: the frontier line, advanced outposts and hinterland. He clarifies some of the evidence for some of the roles performed by military personnel on or near frontiers, principally the suppression of banditry, broadly construed, and punitive expeditions; surveillance of the region beyond the border and detection and deterrence of potentially hostile developments; monitoring and control of the movements of non-Roman groups and individuals.
Ch. 19 pursues some of these strands at a more conceptual level with a view to determining the “purpose and operation” or “function” of frontiers, and in particular to distinguish between military defence, strictly speaking, whether against large-scale invasions or low-intensity raiding, and a broader spectrum of objectives encapsulated in “enforcement of regulations” and “control of movement”. Breeze first reprises a long-standing debate regarding the defensive utility of linear barriers, especially Hadrian’s Wall. Aspects of this controversy, at least as presented here, seem somewhat contrived or unnecessarily polarised, insofar as disagreement in large part hinges on the semantics of “defence”, which only in its narrowest (tactical) sense need entail combat from or in front of battlements. In any case, Breeze quickly resolves this apparent discord by simply (and obviously) allowing to frontier installations a diversity of role and purpose in different times and/or zones, whereby, typically, initial (post-conquest) and primarily security-orientated measures might have later acquired additional or alternative functions. Beyond protection of travellers, caravans or agriculturally productive land from robbers or raiders, Breeze reviews a range of scholarly opinions on the primary purpose of linear barriers, forts and fortlets ‒ including the channelling of transhumant traffic, collection of customs dues, promotion of urban development, prevention of exports and/or emigration, and, more fashionably, power-political symbolism ‒ most of which he treats with justified scepticism.
A short assessment of how “successful” Roman frontiers might have been (ch. 20) is cautious or non-committal, not least because their potential to function as intended was dependent on so many factors and contingencies, notably Roman military and diplomatic power, combining actual intervention and psychological deterrence. This discussion does not acknowledge the cultural and societal diversity of peoples bordering the Roman empire, and in consequence how the differing nature and scale of military threats as well as opportunities for diplomatic engagement shaped regional frontiers beyond environmental considerations. In conclusion, Breeze affirms the ability of the archaeological evidence to provide answers to, or at least elucidate patterns in, the form, operation and purpose of Roman frontiers, which are characterised by flexibility in the deployment of troops and a capacity to design structures and remodel systems in response to shifting (regional and even ‘grand’) strategic priorities. Without direct or detailed engagement with those previous studies (principally Whittaker and Isaac) which have sought to minimise, ignore or deny the defensive or demarcative purpose and function of Roman frontiers, Breeze’s exposition of frontier installations and their diverse topographical settings points to a long-term capability for rational, sophisticated and strategically coherent planning. The book ends with a substantial Further Reading, albeit with striking omissions,[1] and suggested Sites to See.
There are occasional inaccuracies: Valerian reigned till 260 not 259, Valentinian died in 375 not 376 (p. xvi); the First Dacian War ended 102 not 103 (84). Some constructions attributed to Valentinian were strictly the work of Valens, e.g. Umm el-Djemal (125, 189, 212). Ps.-Hyginus, whatever his disputed date, was not “writing in the fourth century” (39, again 51). Breeze’s statement that ps.-Hyginus “enumerates how many soldiers should be in each tent – ten” (39) appears to misconstrue the text: papilio unus occupat pedes X … tegit homines VIII (De mun. castr. 1): “one tent occupies ten feet … covers eight men” (= one contubernium). The “anonymous treatise on strategy of the sixth century” (28-29, 192) has long ceased to be anonymous and is now identified as part of a larger compendium by Syrianus Magister, which recent studies have assigned to the ninth century; it can thus be cited only for general historical comparanda.[2] Breeze states that “Diocletian was also responsible for the formation of new units of ripenses for the frontier”, but this term is not attested until Constantinian legislation in 325 (Cod. Th. 7.20.4) and the origin and identity of this category of remuneration are far from clear.[3] The Parthian royal contemporary of Caracalla was not Artanaus but Artabanus V (186). Bradwell is wrongly identified as Branodunum (= Brancaster) rather than Othona (154, text and map), while Brancaster has become Branchester. Other misprints are negligible.
These cavils do not diminish my generally positive assessment of this book as an up-to-date, engaging and accessible introduction to Roman frontier installations for general readers, which, given its synoptic approach and specific focus, will also prove a useful guide to students as well as specialists in related fields, and provide an authoritative military-archaeological underpinning to our understanding of the broader social, cultural and economic dimensions of Roman frontiers.
[1] Most notably E.L. Wheeler, ‘Methodological Limits and the Mirage of Roman Strategy’, The Journal of Military History 57 (1993) [pt. 1] 7-41, [pt. 2] 215-240. Also G. Greatrex, ‘Roman frontiers and foreign policy in the East’ in R. Alston and S.N.C. Lieu (edd.), Aspects of the Roman East. Papers in Honour of Professor Fergus Millar (Brepols 2007) 103-173.
Dr Philip Rance (prr@fastnet.co.uk)